JCTA
Journal of Computing Theories and Applications ISSN:3024-9104
Research Article
Enhanced Digital Signature System Security with HashIDs in Blockchain
ABC 1*
1 ABC; email: abc
* Corresponding Author : abc
Abstract: The security and integrity of data play a crucial role in the era of digital technological ad- vances, particularly in the management of digital certificates that require secure and accountable systems. The purpose of this study is to improve the security and integrity of digital certificates by utilizing blockchain technology. The use of blockchain technology has proven to be the optimal sol- ution to challenges related to the authenticity and integrity of digital documents or certificates. As a decentral- ized data storage technology, blockchain provides a secure and verifiable envi- ronment for the management and security of digital certificates. This study highlights the use of digital signatures by leveraging blockchain networks to enhance security and maintain the in- tegrity of digital certificates. The research employs agile software development to implement a system for verifying and validating digital certificates, focusing on the application of digital sig- natures within a blockchain network. To assess the system's robustness, various tests were conducted, including compression, data modification, image addition, and file rotation. The findings indicate that integrating digital signa- tures within blockchain networks can improve the security of digital certificates, with changes to certificates automatically de- tec ted to maintain authenticity and integrity. This research offers a novel approach by combining digital signatures with Hash ID algorithms and integrating blockchain technology to build a more secure dig- ital certificate verification and authentication system. The results demonstrate that integrating digital signa- tures within a blockchain-based environment is effective in maintaining the authenticity and integrity of digital certifi- cates. The implications of this study suggest that blockchain technology, with its decen- tralized nature and robust security features, is a reliable solution for managing and verifying digital certificates, providing effective safeguards against forgery and ensuring reliable authentication. In con- clusion, the blockchain-based architecture for digital certificate verification and authentication systems has proven effective and successful in enhancing security and pre-serving the integrity of digital certifi- cates. Further research should evaluate the performance of various hashing algorithms in the context of blockchain networks.
Keywords: Architecture; Blockchain; Digital Certificate; Digital Signature; Hash IDs; Validation; Ver- ification
1 Introduction
The validity and integrity of data play a central role in the era of technological advance- ments, especially in the management of digital certificates that require secure and accountable systems [1]. The importance of digital certificates has been increasing in various contexts, such as the security of financial transactions and identification in online environments. As electronic documents, digital certificates serve as storage for the identity information of their owners [1].
The emergence of digital signatures can be used to secure digital certificates [2], [3]. Digital signatures are a public key primitive in message authentication [4]. In the physical world, handwritten signatures commonly appear on written or typewritten messages. Signa- tures allow the signer to be linked to the conveyed message. Digital signatures can also be understood as a technique that connects individuals/entities to digital data. This connection can be independently confirmed by the recipient or third parties [5].
[unreadable text may be present beyond this point]
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Signer
Data
Hashing Function
Hash
Signer's Private Key
Signature Algorithm
Data
Signature
Verifier
Hashing Function
Verification Algorithm
Hash
Signer’s Public Key
Figure 1. Model Digital Signature [6]
The digital signature model shown in Figure 1 involves the use of a public-private key pair, with the private key used for signing and the public key used for verification. The process starts with the user inserting data into a hash function to generate a hash value. This hash value is then signed using the private key, resulting in a digital signature, which is sent along with the data to the verifying party. The verifier inputs the digital signature and the public key into a verification algorithm and runs a hash function on the data to obtain a hash value. If this hash value matches the output of the verification algorithm, the digital signature is declared valid, ensuring that the signer cannot deny their involvement in the future.
In addition to using digital signatures, the application of blockchain technology can also enhance the security of digital certificates [7], [8]. The combination of digital signatures and blockchain technology provides an optimal solution [9]. Blockchain is a decentralised and distributed data storage technology that uses cryptography to record transactions in securely linked blocks [10], [11]. Blockchain, as decentralised infrastructure, offers a secure and verifiable environment, especially in the context of managing and securing digital certificates [12], [13].
The characteristics of the blockchain network are as follows [10], [14]:
1. Decentralization: With the application of blockchain technology, third-party intervention as a validation authority is no longer required. Blockchain consensus algorithms play a role in maintaining data consistency in distributed networks.
2. Persistency: Transactions can be quickly validated, and invalid transactions will not be accepted by miners. It is challenging to delete or reverse transactions once they are recorded in the blockchain. Blocks containing invalid transactions can be immediately de-
leted.
3. Anonymity: Each user can interact with the blockchain using a generated address that does not reveal their true identity. Note that blockchain cannot guarantee perfect privacy due to its inherent limitations.
4. Audibility: The Bitcoin blockchain stores user balance data based on the Unspent Transaction Output (UTXO) model. Each transaction must reference several previously unused transactions. When the current transaction is recorded in the blockchain, the status of the referenced transactions changes from unused to used, allowing transactions to be easily verified and tracked.
The functioning of blockchain is analogous to a spreadsheet containing transac-
tion records that are widely distributed across a network of computers. The network design is in-
tended to update the spreadsheet periodically [15]. This illustration shows that blockchain does not require intermediaries, allowing each individual to record their transactions on their own spreadsheet. The use of internal blockchain algorithms allows consensus to be reached in the network whenever a new item is added [16], [17].
In the context of digital signatures, blockchain technology can be used to store and verify digital signatures [18]. Each digital signature is associated with a unique ID and stored in cryptographically linked blocks, providing a high level of security and trust in the digital sig-
nature verification process [19]. Emphasizing the use of digital signatures with blockchain networks significantly enhances the security layers for the data stored within [20].
Various studies are related to similar research topics. The first study examined 30 certi-
ficates, 15 of which used a QR code-based document authentication system and digital
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signatures, and the other 15 without this method. The results showed that the implementation of this document authentication system could prevent forgery by identifying fake documents with QR codes not generated by the system [1]. The second study evaluated the use of blockchain technology with the Keyless Signature Infrastructure (KSI), Timestamped algorithms, and the Merkle tree, indicating that this system's response time was nearly 50% faster than conventional techniques, with storage costs 20% lower [21].
The third study focused on educational certificates that had been digitized in educational institutions, particularly SSLC, HSC, and academic certificates. To improve security and efficiency in digital certificate validation processes, the proposed solution was storing certificates in a blockchain system, converting paper certificates to digital format with cryptographic algorithms, and providing validation services through mobile applications [12].
This research demonstrated that blockchain could reduce the risk of forgery and simplify the management of digital certificates. Finally, the fourth study implemented blockchain in LoRaWAN networks at the physical layer. Data transmission experiments showed that LoRaWAN with blockchain networks could reduce data transmission costs, but this study was only conducted on local blockchain networks, not including public blockchain networks [22].
The application of digital signatures to blockchain networks in digital certificates will be the primary focus of this research. The main goal of this research is to enhance security while maintaining the integrity of digital certificates. This study offers a new approach by combining digital signatures and Hash ID algorithms and integrating blockchain technology to build a more secure digital certificate verification and validation system. Specific trials were conducted on various types of files, including compression, data changes, image additions, and file rotations, to evaluate the system's resilience to modifications.
2. Methodology
The research process to be applied is illustrated in Figure 2.
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Start
Data Collection Method
Literature Review
Identify
Research Objective
System Development Method
Agile Software Development
Requirement Analysis
Design
Testing
Implementation
Testing on Research Objects
Compressing file
Modify value or data
Adding object to the file
Rotation file
Finish
Figure 2. Research Stages
2.1. Data Collection Method
The research begins with a data collection method that involves a literature review to gather relevant information, identify problems or needs, and formulate hypotheses or research objectives.
2.2. System Development Method
Once the data is collected, the research moves into the system development methodology phase using Agile Software Development, a flexible and adaptive approach. Agile is often used in software development because it allows for a quick response to changing needs and feedback. The Agile methodology consists of a series of iterative and collaborative stages, focusing on continuous delivery and iterative development. The stages in Agile [23] are as follows:
1. Requirements Analysis
The first stage is requirements analysis, where the needs of the application or system are identified and analyzed in depth.
2. Design
Next, in the design stage, the system begins to take shape with detailed modeling and interface design. This design encompasses system architecture and user interaction flows.
3. Implementation
After the design is outlined, the research enters the implementation stage. In this phase, software developers start writing code based on the specified design and requirements. Implementation is a critical part of the process, determining the success of system integration and overall functionality. This stage also includes functionality testing of the developed system using black-box testing methods.
The hardware specifications used in this study are based on an Acer Swift 3 device with
an 11th generation Intel Core i5 processor, 16GB of RAM, Iris Xe Graphics for the VGA,
and 512GB of memory.
4. Testing
The final stage is testing, where the software is tested to ensure it works properly and is
bug-free. Testing involves various techniques, including unit testing, integration testing, and
overall system testing to ensure the software meets the set requirements.
2.3 Testing on Research Objects
In addition, testing is also conducted on the research objects, which are digital certificate
files. The testing includes the following:
1. Compressing the digital certificate file.
2. Modifying values or data in the digital certificate file.
3. Adding images to the digital certificate file.
4. Rotating or reorienting the content of the digital certificate file
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Requirement Analysis
The requirement analysis phase involves two important aspects, as follows:
1. Problem Requirement Analysis: Based on previous research, the security and integrity of data in digital certificate management are primary concerns. Digital signatures and blockchain technology are proposed as solutions to enhance security and ensure the integrity of digital certificates. Blockchain technology has been applied in various contexts, including educational credential management, electronic voting systems, and Internet of Things (IoT) applications. This research aims to develop a solution to improve the security and integrity of digital certificates, focusing on the application of digital signatures in blockchain networks.
2. Problem Definition: This stage involves identifying the issues that will be addressed through the implementation of the developed system. The main goal of this research is to develop a digital verification and authentication system using the Ethereum blockchain platform. Therefore, this research seeks to provide a solution that can enhance security and ensure the integrity of digital certificates in an ever-evolving technological environment.
3.2. Design
3.2.1 System Design Phase
Figure 3. Use Case Diagram of Digital Certificate Verification and Validation System
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Based on figure 3, users in the use case diagram have the option to create accounts, log in, access the main page, view history, and log out. Additionally, users can sign and verify documents on the main page, with the process occurring over a blockchain network. This action provides users with flexibility in managing their access within the system. Blockchain-based signing and verification add a significant layer of security. Access to the main page and other actions reflect the system's ability to meet user needs.
Figure 4. System Overview
Figure 4 presents an overview of the entire system to be developed. The system architecture is web-based, with ReactJS and Laravel used for front-end and back-end development, respectively, while MySQL is used as the database. To communicate with Ethereum nodes or blockchain networks, the system utilizes the web3js library and the Metamask extension. This combination of technologies creates a flexible and secure framework. With this approach, the system can interact with the blockchain while providing a dynamic and accessible user interface.
Figure 5. Workflow for Verification and Validation
Figure 5 illustrates the process of digital signing and verification using blockchain technology. This process consists of two main parts: signing and verification. In the signing stage, data files are input into a digital signature algorithm to generate a digital signature, then subm... to the blockchain. The verification stage involves examining the data file and digital signature through the blockchain to ensure that the verified message matches what was
Figure 5 illustrates the process of digital signing and verification using blockchain technology. This process consists of two main parts: signing and verification. In the signing stage, data files are input into a digital signature algorithm to generate a digital signature, then submitted to the blockchain. The verification stage involves examining the data file and digital signature through the blockchain to ensure that the verified message matches what was
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signed, indicated by a green checkmark as a sign of successful verification. This process en- sures the integrity and authenticity of documents in digital transactions.
3.2.2 Digital Signature Blockchain
Input data
Digital Signature
p q g
r = (g^k mod p) mod q
q
Sig = ( r, s )
s = [k^-1 (H(M) + xr)] mod q
Submit
Blockchain
Block 0
Block 1
Block 2
New Block
Signature
Figure 6. Digital Signature Blockchain
Based on figure 6, the user's input data is then signed using a digital signature algorithm, where:
r = (g^k mod p) mod q
s = [k^-1 (H(M) + xr)] mod q
(1)
According to formula 1, there are three global parameters: p, q, and g. Parameter p is a prime number where 2^L-1 < p < 2^L for 512 ≤ L ≤ 1024 and L being a bit length between 512 and 1024 in 64-bit increments. Parameter q is an N-bit divisor of number p where 2^N-1 < q < 2^N. Parameter g is chosen using the formula h^((p-1)/q) mod p, with h being an integer 1 < h < (p-1).
s = [k^-1 (H(M) + xr)] mod q
(2)
According to formula 2, to create a signature, a user calculates two values, r and s, which are functions of the public key components (p, q, g), the user's private key (x), the hash code of the message H(M), and an additional integer k, ideally generated randomly or semi-randomly and unique for each signing process [24].
The result of the digital signature is then submitted to the blockchain by adding a new block. Subsequently, the blockchain assigns a signature that will later be used to verify the file within the blockchain network.
3.3 Implementation
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3.3.1 Implementation Smart Contract
1. Handle Sign Document
async function signBlockchain() {
// Initialize Web3 with MetaMask Provider
const web3 = new Web3(window.ethereum);
// Request Permission to Connect to MetaMask
const accounts = await window.ethereum.request({
method: "eth_requestAccounts",
});
const account = accounts[0];
// Download File
const fileContent = await downloadFile(data.filePreview);
// Sign Document
const signature = await signDocument(web3, fileContent, account);
setData({
...data,
blockchain_document: fileContent,
blockchain_signature: signature,
});
}
The signBlockchain() function is a procedure used to digitally sign documents using the
Ethereum blockchain and MetaMask.
- Initialize Web3 with MetaMask Provider: The code begins with a Web3 object, allowing interaction with the Ethereum network. This object is initialized using window.ethereum, which is the provider used by MetaMask to interact with Web3 applica- tions.
- Request Permission to Connect to MetaMask: It then requests permission to connect to MetaMask by calling eth_requestAccounts. This request displays a dialog in MetaMask for the user, allowing them to approve or reject the connection with the application. The result of this request is a list of available Ethereum accounts.
- Download File: Downloads the content of a file from an external source using the downloadFile function. The result of this function is stored in the fileContent variable.
- Sign Document: Once the file content is downloaded, it calls the signDocument function, passing web3 object, file content, and the Ethereum account used. This function is responsible for generating a cryptographic signature for the file using the MetaMask account. The resulting signature is stored in the signature variable.
- Set Data: Updates the state/data by adding the downloaded file content and signature to the existing data structure. setData is used to update the state with the new values. In this case, blockchain_document is set to the downloaded file content, and blockchain_signature is set to the generated signature.
2. Handle Verify Document
async function documentVerification(dokumen) {
const web3 = new Web3(window.ethereum);
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----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
setLoading(true);
try {
// Search for Document by ID
const { data } = await getDokumenByBlockchainHash(dokumen);
const signature = data.blockchain_signature;
const address = data.ethereum_address.address;
// Verify Signature
const signerAddress = verifySignature(
web3,
dokumen,
signature
);
// Verify Ethereum Address Match
if (signerAddress.toLowerCase() === address.toLowerCase()) {
setIsVerified(true);
} else {
setIsVerified(false);
}
} catch (error) {
console.log(error.response.data);
}
setLoading(false);
}
The documentVerification(document) function is an asynchronous procedure used to digitally verify documents. It accepts a document parameter, which is the content of the document to be verified.
• Initialize Web3 with MetaMask Provider: The function begins by initializing a Web3 object using window.ethereum, which allows interaction with the Ethereum network through MetaMask.
• Try-Catch Block for Error Handling: The code uses a try-catch block to handle potential errors during the verification process. This helps prevent the function from crashing unexpectedly if there is an error.
• Search for Document by ID: The code calls the getDokumenByBlockchainHash(dokumen) function, which returns the data associated with a specific document based on its ID or hash in the blockchain.
• Retrieve Signature Information and Ethereum Address: From the retrieved data, the code identifies blockchain_signature (cryptographic signature) and ethereum_address.
• Verify Signature: The code then provides the verifySignature function to verify the signature on the document. The provided parameters include the Web3 object, the document, and the signature.
• Verify Ethereum Address Match: After obtaining signerAddress, the code compares this address with the expected address. The comparison is done by converting both to lowercase (toLowerCase()) to avoid case-related discrepancies. If the addresses match, the
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variable setIsVerified(true) is set to indicate successful verification. If not, setIsVerified(false) is set to indicate verification failure.
3.3.2. Application Results
1. Sign Document Page
Figure 7. Sign Document Page Layout
Figure 7 shows the page dedicated to signing documents. Before users can use this feature, they are required to install the MetaMask extension; otherwise, the system will issue a warning. Users can then select and upload the digital certificate file they want to digitally sign. The files that can be uploaded for digital signature purposes only support the PDF extension.
Figure 8. Sign Document Process Layout
Figure 8 illustrates the Sign Document page layout after users have uploaded the digital certificate file. On this page, users can view the certificate that has been input and adjust the QRCode's position before proceeding to the digital signature process. If there's a mistake or a need to replace the file, users can press the 'Reset File' button to delete the uploaded data. Once everything is set, users can continue by clicking the "Continue" button to initiate the digital signature process. This interface provides flexibility for users to change the QRCode position and allows them to reset the file if needed.
2. Verify Document Page
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Figure 9. Valid Verify Document Page Layout
Figure 9 displays the interface of the Verify Document page after users have uploaded the digital certificate file and submitted it for validation. If the document is valid, the system will display the blockchain signature. The information presented includes the signer's identity, Ethereum address, document hash, and signature. The presence of this data indicates that the digital certificate has been verified and is considered valid. Thus, the file can be confirmed as authentic if all this information is available.
Figure 10. Invalid Verify Document Page Layout
Figure 10 shows what happens when the digital certificate entered is invalid. If the system detects changes indicating invalidity, a message appears saying "Document not verified / invalid." This shows that the system can identify and reject unauthorised documents.
3. History Page
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--------------------------------
Riwayat
Figure 11. History Page Layout
311
Figure 11 shows the history page containing a list of the user's digital signatures. Users can easily search the history based on relevant keywords. Additionally, users have the option to delete unnecessary history entries. This page also allows users to view the details of the digital signature on each history entry. With the search and delete features, users can manage their digital signature history more efficiently.
312
3.4. Testing
Table 1. System Testing
Test Case Testing Procedure Expected Output Result Conclusion
Register Page Open the register page and register Displays the register page and registers successfully Successful Valid
Login Page Open the login page and log in Displays the login page and logs in successfully Successful Valid
Sign Document Page Open the sign document page and sign a document Displays the sign document page and successfully signs the document Successful Valid
Verify Document Page Open the verify document page and verify a document Displays the verify document page and successfully verifies the document Successful Valid
History Page Open the history page and display digital signature history Displays the history page and successfully displays digital signature history
According to table 1, the system testing using the blackbox testing method has been conducted. The results from several testing stages, starting from the register page, login page, sign document page, verify document page, and history page, were declared successful.
Table 2. Performance Testing of Signature Generation and Validation
DS + Blockchain DS + Blockchain + Hash ID’s
Avg generate signature (seconds) Avg validate signature (seconds) Avg generate signature (seconds) Avg validate signature (seconds)
Iteration
1 3.25 1.26 3.30 1.11
2 3.45 1.23 3.46 1.26
3 3.52 1.30 3.32 1.12
4 3.54 1.51 3.40 1.10
5 3.24 1.44 3.58 1.11
Average 3.40 1.34 3.41 1.14
Table 2. Performance Testing of Signature Generation and Validation
DS + Blockchain
DS + Blockchain + Hash ID’s
Avg generate signature (seconds)
Avg validate signature (seconds)
Avg generate signature (seconds)
Avg validate signature (seconds)
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Table 2 shows the performance testing results of two different methods in the process of generating and validating digital signatures. The test was conducted with five iterations, with the first iteration involving 10 trials, the second iteration with 20 trials, and so on, up to the fifth iteration with 50 trials. The first method, DS + Blockchain, had an average time for generating a signature of 3.40 seconds and an average time for validation of 1.34 seconds. Meanwhile, the second method, DS + Blockchain + Hash ID’s, showed a slight increase in average time for generating a signature to 3.41 seconds but experienced a decrease in validation time to 1.14 seconds. This occurs because blockchain technology allows data to be stored and accessed in a decentralized manner. With data already hashed using blockchain technology, the validation process becomes faster as the system only needs to check for consistency and conformity.
Average Time to Generate and Validate Signature
Figure 12. Average Time to Generate and Validate Signature
DS + Blockchain + Hash ID's
DS + Blockchain
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5
Validate Generate
Based on the diagram in figure 12, the test results indicate that adding Hash ID's can affect time efficiency in the digital signature validation process, although it has a minimal impact on the signature generation time.
3.5. Testing on Research Objects
Testing was conducted on the research objects, which are digital certificate files, where various operations were applied to these files to examine whether changes in the files affect the signature value. If there are changes in the signature value, it indicates that file manipulation can be verified on the blockchain network.
Table 3. Testing Results on Research Objects
Parameter Initial File Manipulated File Signature Value of Initial File Signature Value of Manipulated File Result Conclusion
0x42f649205099b 0xa0f31074122bb2d3a26806d88f990f0e875d60183453f5fe269128e6d80c20eeb0c9a2d8f84b0 c1961b 51b
Compressing a digital certificate file
[images of certificates]
Successfully detected changes in the manipulated file
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Modifying the
values or data in
a digital certifi
cate file (by con-
verting it to
Word format
and then saving
it as a PDF)
[unreadable]
Successfully
detected
changes in the
manipulated
file
Adding an
image to a
digital cer-
tificate file
[unreadable]
Detected
changes in the
manipulated
file
Rotating or flip-
ping the con-
tents of a digital
certificate file
[unreadable]
Based on the test results recorded in table 3 the blockchain-based digital signature method can detect any changes made to the digital certificate files with 100% accuracy. All changes can be identified on the blockchain network, and even minor alterations to compressed files have a significant impact on their signature value.
Several studies have investigated the use of blockchain technology to enhance document security, but there are still some shortcomings to be addressed [1], [12], [21], [22]. For exam-
ple, some studies use blockchain without adding additional hash algorithms. This research contributes to the realm of blockchain-based digital certificate verification and validation. The novelty of this research is:
1. The use of a combination of digital signatures, blockchain technology, and hash ID al-
gorithms to detect changes in digital certificates.
2. Conducting specific testing on various forms of digital certificate modification to ensure data reliability and security. Based on the test results recorded in Table 4, the accuracy reaches 100%.
4. Conclusion
In conclusion, this study successfully integrated hash IDs and digital signatures into a blockchain network to enhance the security of digital certificates. Even the smallest modification to a digital certificate can alter the signature outcome, achieving accuracy levels of up to 100% while maintaining security and integrity. Additionally, the results from this research demonstrate that the system architecture for verifying and validating digital certificates has been successfully designed and proven valid through functionality testing. There is a noticeable change in the average time required for generating and validating signatures before and after incorporating hash IDs. The average time to generate a signature without hash IDs is 3.40 seconds, which increased to 3.41 seconds with hash IDs. On the other hand, the average time for validating a signature without hash IDs is 1.34 seconds, which dropped to 1.14 seconds with hash IDs.
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Suggestions for future research include comparing various other hashing algorithms to evaluate their advantages and disadvantages in the context of blockchain networks, and con-
ducting system performance tests for comparison with future research.
Author Contributions: A short paragraph specifying their individual contributions must be provided for research articles with several authors (mandatory for more than 1 author). The following statements should be used: Conceptualization: X.X, and Y.Y.; methodology: X.X; software: X.X; validation: X.X, Y.Y, and Z.Z; formal analysis: X.X; investigation: X.X; resources: X.X; data curation: X.X; writing—original draft preparation: X.X; writing—review and editing: X.X; visualization: X.X; supervision: X.X; project administration: X.X; funding acquisition: Y.Y.
Funding: Please add: “This research received no external funding” or “This research was funded by NAME OF FUNDER, grant number XXX”. Check carefully that the details given are accurate and use the standard spelling of funding agency names. Any errors may affect your future funding (mandatory).
Data Availability Statement: We encourage all authors of articles published in JCTA journals to share their research data. This section provides details regarding where data supporting reported results can be found, including links to publicly archived datasets analyzed or generated during the study. Where no new data were created or data unavailable due to privacy or ethical restrictions, a statement is still required.
Acknowledgments: In this section, you can acknowledge any support given which is not covered by the author contribution or funding sections. This may include administrative and technical support or donations in kind (e.g., materials used for experiments).
Conflicts of Interest: Declare conflicts of interest or state (mandatory). “The authors declare no conflict of interest.” Authors must identify and declare any personal circumstances or interests that may be perceived as inappropriately influencing the representation or interpretation of reported research results. Any role of the funders in the study's design; in the collection, analyses or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.
Appendix A
The appendix is an optional section that can contain details and data supplementary to the main text—for example, explanations of experimental details that would disrupt the flow of the main text but nonetheless remain crucial to understanding and reproducing the research shown; figures of replicates for experiments of which representative data is shown in the main text can be added here if brief, or as Supplementary data. Mathematical proofs of results not central to the paper can be added as an appendix.
Appendix B
All appendix sections must be cited in the main text. In the appendices, Figures, Tables, etc. should be labeled starting with “A”—e.g., Figure A1, Figure A2, etc.
References
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