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Table of Contents

S/N Content Page

1 Introduction 3

2 Globalisation 4

3 Convergence and Divergence Theories 5

3.1 Convergence Theory 5

3.2 Divergence Theory 6

3.3 Cross-Vergence Theory 7

4 HRM in the UK 7

5 Nigeria 9

6 Comparing the UK and Nigeria 11

7 Implications of Convergence, Divergence and Cross-Vergence 12

8 Conclusion and Critical Reflection 13

References 15

List of Figures

Figure Title Page

Figure 1 Hofstede Cultural Dimension of Nigeria and UK (Hofstede Insights, 2023). 12

The Impact of Globalisation on HRM Practices: Convergence, Divergence and Cross-

Vergence in the UK and Nigeria

Introduction

Globalization, facilitated by tech advancements, communication, and transportation, has united

different countries and cultures (Stahl et al., 2012). The effect on international companies and

their human resource management (HRM) procedures is considerable for multinationals (MNCs)

that expand to new countries and markets (Brewster et al., 2016).

There have been two main theories about the influence of the internationalization of HRM

practices on global HRM practices. The convergence theory argues that globalization forces the

adoption of universal 'best' practices, making the nations have similar HRM policies (Pudelko &

Harzing, 2007). The latter divergence theory, which posits that national contexts comprising

institutional and cultural factors lead to the retention of unique HRM practices in different

countries, emerges (Rugman et al., 2011).

The essay critically reviews theory by comparing HRM practices in the UK and Nigeria. It will

do so through an in-depth comparative analysis. Conversely, these countries show grounds for

different contexts – the UK is a developed Western economy, and Nigeria is an emerging

economy. Such a comparative analysis of these different HRM approaches

helps identify trends toward globalization versus differentiation. The next step is determining the

degree of convergence, divergence, or cross-vergence of HRM practices, followed by the

implications of different practices, e.g., positive effects, issues, and sustainability.

Critical HRM practices—talent management, recruitment and selection, and employment

relations—will be examined to guide this analysis. Researchers have stated

that Globalisation has a particular effect on the manufacturing and services industries, as MNCs

want to build a skilled global workforce by standardising talent management

processes and adapting practices for the local context (Farndale et al., 2010). This paper

will focus on integrating and diversifying human resource management areas.

After reviewing theories and evidence, it can be said that convergence has, to a certain extent,

happened in the dimensions of HRM, such as talent management. There are divergence factors,

however, in areas including recruitment, selection, and employment relations. The same applies

to convergent cross-cultural interactions when MNCs combine global good practices with local

adaptations (Pudelko & Harzing, 2007). This calls for the urgent adoption of green Human

Resource Management strategies.

Globalisation

Globalisation can be defined as:

"The term "globalization" refers to the various processes of increasing interdependence and

integration across national boundaries, namely the diffusion of capital, traded goods, people,

concepts, ideas, and values" (Ariss, 2014, p.5).

A key driver of globalisation has been advancements in information and communications

technologies (ICT), enhancing connectivity and knowledge transfer between geographically

dispersed units of multinational corporations (MNCs) (Tarique & Schuler, 2010). Globalisation

has also been facilitated through trade liberalisation policies and regional economic integrations,

which have opened up new markets for MNC expansion (Brewster et al., 2016). These dynamics have enabled MNCs to increase foreign direct investment (FDI), expand

operations into new countries, and develop complex global supply chains (Ariss, 2014). Globalisation

has created opportunities for organisations to access wider talent pools and new

customer segments. However, it also intensifies competition, and presents management

challenges in coordinating strategies and operations across diverse subsidiaries and cultures

(Schuler & Tarique, 2007).

HRM plays a critical role in enabling MNCs to effectively leverage globalisation dynamics, through developing human capital and coordinating people management approaches across global operations (Tarique & Schuler, 2010). However, academics have debated whether globalisation leads to convergence or divergence of HRM practices.

Convergence and Divergence Theories

Convergence Theory

Convergence theorists argue globalisation creates pressures for organisations to adopt universal 'best practices' in HRM, to develop a skilled and flexible global workforce, reduce costs/complexity, and enable integration across geographically dispersed operations (Brewster, 2007).

Convergence drivers include the dominance of US MNCs diffusing American practices worldwide; growth of global media and 'business schools' spreading Western management concepts; and increased mobility of highly-skilled professionals transferring practices between countries (Pudelko & Harzing, 2007). International standards and codes, such as UN Global Compact, also encourage convergence in areas like labour rights.

Technological developments enable innovations in HRM, like e-recruitment, to be rapidly transferred globally (Parry et al., 2017). As organisations compete for talented workers, convergence occurs in practices like performance-based pay and talent development programs, to align with expectations of an emerging global elite workforce (Kim et al., 2011). Competitive pressures lead firms to emulate practices of successful global rivals (Brewster, 2007).

Overall, convergence theorists argue globalisation erodes national differences, with MNCs adopting uniform best practices, resulting in an inevitable shift towards a universal model of HRM (Brewster, 2007). This is linked to modernisation theory; the view that developing countries transition to Western practices as they industrialise (Dowling et al., 2013).

However, academics have criticised aspects of convergence theory. Pudelko & Harzing (2007) argue it overestimates how rapidly cross-national differences can be overcome. Critics also

contend convergence theorists underestimate ongoing diversity between national contexts and cultures, and overemphasise Western ethnocentrism in the notion of 'universal best practices’ (Kim et al., 2011). This leads to the contrasting divergence perspective.

Divergence Theory

Divergence theorists argue national differences remain strong forces shaping variation in HRM practices between countries (Brewster, 2007). This view recognises enduring diversity in national cultures and institutional contexts.

Hofstede’s (2001) cultural dimensions theory identifies deeply embedded societal characteristics, like power distance, individualism, masculinity and uncertainty avoidance, which influence peoples’ values and attitudes at work. These dimensions vary considerably between countries, shaping preferences for aspects like employee empowerment and participation, teamwork, risk-taking, and equality (Newman & Nollen, 1996). National culture is viewed as a persistent force driving divergence in HRM practices to align with local preferences.

Divergence theorists also give special attention to the institutions. These formal institutions like labour laws, regulations and trade unions, continue to be very different from one country to the other. Thus, this impedes uptake of globally standardised practices (Rugman et al., 2011). On the other hand, these variations to the regulations increase the difficulty for MNCs to apply their methods of talent management, rewards, and employment relations. The educational systems divide differently among countries, hence, localized approach to recruitment becomes paramount (Sparrow et al., 2016).

Hence, the divergence theorists argue that the level of differentiation between national systems is not removed by globalisation. But in reality, corporations, being global in nature, need to be well-equipped to deal with pressures of global integration, with adapting to different cultural preferences and institutional environments of countries in which they operate (Rugman et al., 2011). This is the reason why the gap between the old and new cultures is not bridged but it widens.

Critics stress that a departure theory seems too optimistic because disintegrative trends and technology-led spillover of innovation can occur even in a globally integrated world (Pudelko & Harzing, 2007). At the same time, divergence theories have been accused of drawing attention to the economically emerging countries, like China and India, as a new centre of economic power and influence (Kim et al., 2011). As a result, the multicultural viewpoint will be a cross-vergence perception.

Cross-Vergence Theory

Cross-vergence theorists contend globalisation prompts selective convergence, in areas where practices can be standardised and transferred globally, like technology platforms and talent development processes for global leader development (Pudelko & Harzing, 2007). However, divergence remains in aspects like recruitment, remuneration and industrial relations, requiring greater local adaptation.

Empirical studies reveal examples of cross-vergence. Performance-based pay has converged as a worldwide trend, but programmes vary in design and implementation between countries (Kim et al., 2011). E-recruitment technology has converged, but job boards and screening approaches reflect local labour markets (Parry et al., 2017).

Cross-vergence reconciles convergence and divergence perspectives, recognising globalisation fosters selective adoption of globally standardised practices, while local adaptation remains imperative in aspects requiring greater cultural alignment (Sparrow et al., 2016). MNCs balance

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tensions between integration, coordination and localisation across HRM policies and programmes (Farndale et al., 2010).

Having examined these theoretical perspectives, the essay will now critically analyse how they apply in specific national contexts, through an in-depth comparative case study of HRM practices in the UK versus Nigeria.

HRM in the UK

The UK provides an example of an advanced Western economy with a long history of industrialisation. Once a dominant colonial power, the UK has transitioned to a post-imperial, deindustrialised service and knowledge economy, with London as a major global financial centre (Dobbin & Boychuk, 1999). The UK is characterised by relatively low power distance, individualism and masculinity (Hofstede Insights, 2023). It has an Anglo-Saxon business system, with deregulated labour markets, emphasis on shareholder value, and low trade union membership compared to parts of continental Europe (Brewster et al., 2016).

The UK is characterised by relatively low power distance, individualism and masculinity (Hofstede Insights, 2023). It has an Anglo-Saxon business system, with deregulated labour markets, emphasis on shareholder value, and low trade union membership compared to parts of continental Europe (Brewster et al., 2016).

Research indicates talent management practices have partially converged in the UK, through greater use of performance-based rewards, talent pools and leadership development programmes (Kim et al., 2011; Sparrow et al., 2016). Factors driving convergence include the rise of US MNCs transferring practices to UK operations, growth of business education promoting talent management concepts, and pressures from financial markets and mobile professionals demanding performance-based careers (Iles et al., 2010).

However, divergence remains in aspects like long-term incentives. UK rewards emphasise share options aligning employee-shareholder interests, whereas practices in countries like Germany utilise profit-sharing models reflecting cooperation not short-term financial performance (Gospel & Pendleton, 2014). Degree of pay differentiation between upper management and average workers also remains higher in the UK than Nordic countries, reflecting UK's higher power distance culture (Kim et al., 2011).

Overall, talent management reflects cross-vergence dynamics in the UK. While some practices like leadership development are more globally standardised, rewards and performance

management retain local characteristics aligned with UK cultural preferences and institutional

contexts. MNCs operating in Britain balance convergence to enable coordination, talent mobility

and cost efficiencies, with allowing divergence where practices require adaptation.

There has been limited convergence in recruitment and selection approaches within the UK

(Parry et al., 2017). Labour markets, education and training systems continue to vary between

regions. Cultural factors also influence preferences regarding aspects like psychometric testing.

Selection processes therefore remain tailored to local contexts.

E-recruitment technology usage has converged, enabling cost and efficiency gains (Johnson et

al., 2018). However, job boards and screening practices must align to local labour supply

variations. Divergence is also evident in application formats and use of techniques like

assessment centres, influenced by educational backgrounds of applicants. Regulatory differences

persist too; while using protected characteristics like race or gender as selection criteria is

prohibited in the UK, this is not necessarily prevented elsewhere.

Overall, recruitment and selection exhibits divergence in the UK, with practices adapted to

regional variations in labour supply, education systems, regulations and cultural preferences.

While technology convergence enables efficiency gains in administration, assessment

approaches, criteria and tools require alignment to local contexts.

The UK has undergone divergence in employment relations, moving from collective approaches

towards more individualistic policies (Dobbins & Boychuk, 1999). Trade union membership has

declined from over 13 million in 1979 to 6.2 million in 2021 (ONS, 2022). Culture has shifted

from collectivism towards higher individualism.

Legislative reforms have also reduced union power. Closed shops were outlawed in the 1990

Employment Act. Strike balloting rules were tightened by the Conservative government in 2016

(McIlroy, 2018). These regulatory changes enabled divergence in UK employment relations

compared to more coordinated European economies where unions retain greater influence.

However, MNCs must still engage with unions where membership is concentrated in sectors like

manufacturing, transport and public services. Collective bargaining coverage remains around

26% in the UK private sector (van Wanrooij et al., 2013). Responsible employers also encourage

’voice’ mechanisms to promote cooperation (Gospel & Pendleton, 2014). So elements of divergence coexist with selective convergence in employment relations.

Overall, the UK exemplifies how divergence is prominent within a Western context, as declining collectivism and union influence drove individualised employment relations diverging from the UK’s past and continental Europe. However, MNCs localise approaches where workforce characteristics require maintaining aspects of collective voice and bargaining structures.

Nigeria

HRM in Nigeria provides an example of an emerging economy undergoing rapid growth and global integration, having transitioned from military rule to democracy since 1999. As a former British colony, Nigeria exhibits remnants of UK institutions, overlaid with strong indigenous traditions, giving rise to a hybrid national and organizational culture (Ahiazu, 1986). Key dimensions include high power distance, collectivism and uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede Insights, 2023). The following sections analyse Nigeria’s HRM practices.

Nigeria has experienced increasing convergence in talent management, through greater adoption of performance-oriented rewards and talent development initiatives within major firms (Fajana et al., 2011). Contributing factors include pressures from globalisation and foreign MNCs expanding in Nigeria, along with returnee Nigerians transferring practices from Western multinationals (Anakwe, 2002). Growth in business education and professional HRM also foster talent management convergence.

However, divergence remains in how practices are adapted to Nigeria’s high power distance culture. Rewards for senior executives and CEOs are substantially higher relative to average workers compared to Western countries (Iloh & Ifijeh, 2020). Status distinction is important.

Development initiatives prioritise leaders and graduates, reflecting hierarchical norms.

Indigenous traditions like patronage and nepotism also influence divergence in practices (Ighomereho & Akpor-Robaro, 2013).

Cross-vergence dynamics are evident as MNCs localise globally transferred talent management

practices to align with Nigeria’s culture, while core processes like leadership development,

expatriation and performance management enable global coordination of skilled workers.

Nigeria exhibits ongoing divergence in recruitment and selection, influenced by the variation of

education systems, cultural preferences and labour supply between its regions (Fajana et al.,

2011). Northern Nigeria operates Sharia law alongside a predominantly Muslim population,

requiring adaptation of practices to cultural sensitivities. Kinship networks sustain referrals and

indigenous selection approaches, diverging from Western formal testing. Candidates often

require local language capabilities (Anakwe, 2002).

However, segments of Nigeria’s labour force reflect convergence. Growth in universities and

returnees with Western education has fostered greater use of formal application processes in

professional sectors. MNCs utilise global networks and standardised screening approaches to

recruit skilled Nigerian talent into regional or global roles (Sparrow et al., 2016), showing

selective convergence.

However, traditional cultural values emphasising collective solidarity, loyalty and harmony sustain more convergence than the adversarial individualism of Western economies (Anakwe, 2002). Indigenous practices like company welfare schemes remain widespread as absence of social security necessitates mutual organisational support (Fajana et al., 2011). MNCs adapt employment relations to blend Western individual performance orientation with Nigeria’s collectivist traditions.

Employment relations exhibit ongoing divergence in Nigeria. Most workers remain in the

informal economy where traditional norms dominate. The formal sector comprises only around

11% of the workforce (Fajana et al., 2011). Union penetration is limited outside public services,

agriculture and oil, reflecting the small formal workforce and cultural lack of mobilisation in

SMEs. Legal reforms have also constrained unions, amplifying divergence from West European

collective relations (Adewumi & Adenugba, 2010).

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Overall, Nigeria demonstrates how informal economies and indigenous cultural values and norms sustain divergence from Western employment relations models. Convergence occurs selectively as MNCs localise aspects of individual performance management and rewards. Cross-vergence is evident blending global integration, local responsiveness and traditional values.

Comparing the UK and Nigeria

The analysis identifies areas of both convergence and divergence between the UK and Nigeria:

• Convergence is evident in segments of talent management practices transferring globally, like leadership development, underpinned by growth of business education. Elements of employment relations like performance management have also converged.

• Ongoing divergence remains in aspects of recruitment, selection and employment relations influenced by localized cultural values, labour markets, regulations and informal sectors. Indigenous practices in patronage and welfare persist.

• Cross-vergence dynamics are visible as MNCs balance pressures for global integration through some standardised practices, with local adaptation of policies and programmes to align with contrasting national cultures, institutions and segments. Talent management and employment relations exemplify blended practices.

The UK and Nigeria comparison highlights how convergence claims are overstated. Divergence endures due to institutional contrasts and embedded societal cultures shaping local preferences.

Cross-vergence best explains how MNCs balance tensions between deriving global efficiencies through standardisation, while remaining locally responsive where practices must align with diverse contexts.

Having analysed areas of convergence, divergence and cross-vergence, the next section will critically examine the implications of these findings.

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Figure 1: Hofstede Cultural Dimension of Nigeria and UK (Hofstede Insights, 2023).

Implications of Convergence, Divergence and Cross-Ver gence

The implications of convergence, divergence and cross-vergence highlight trade-offs between workforce integration and localisation. While convergence enables global consistency in areas like branding and talent development, overly zealous imposition risks insensitivity to local contexts (Gamble, 2010). Divergence assists localization but also has the potential to interfere with integration. Cross-vergence accounts for tension thanks to selective standardization and individualizing where necessary (Pudelko & Harzing, 2007).

English:

The cross-vergence aims to do so through global frameworks and local flexibility (Boussebaa & Morgan, 2014).

Convergence risks imposing a dominant headquarters mindset and postcolonial resentments, while divergence may justify parochialism (Jack & Westwood, 2009). Cross divergence, on the other hand, focuses on locally contextualized innovation and is informed by versatile ideas. Power structure also tends to alter, with the same centralization of control at HQ as in convergence, whereas differences in divergence result in more local decision-making. English:

It's crucial to recognize that the notion of 'universal best practice' has a challenging model that, in contrast, embraces a more agile perspective. It posits that solutions should be adaptive to contextual levels rather than applying a static tool universally. Cross-vergence allows for a practical compromise between complete convergence or divergence extremes. A well-executed integration and localization strategy can ensure sustainable HRM, accommodating global and local needs.

Conclusion and Critical Reflection

This essay examines the critique of all three perspectives (convergence, divergence, and cross-vergence) regarding whether globalization brings out universal HRM practices or whether localization continues. The wide range of HRM approaches in the UK and Nigeria have shown evergreen gaps in practice due to institutional and cultural variations. Nevertheless, convergence has occurred selectively in fields like leadership development and electronic recruitment technology, which is expected to coordinate efficiencies. The practicality of global homogenization of HRM is exaggerated and not yet a reality despite the theoretical claims. The cross-vergence model, which balances pressures for international consistency with local alignment, is the best way to define MNCs.

The main implications are that adaption and innovation should be based on cultural comprehension rather than a simplified view of superior practices. Sustainable HRM calls for combining context-specific global and local priorities via flexible policies and mindsets, not exclusive loyalty to universal models or narrow-minded interests.

This comparative study of contrasting case studies can only convey some of the intricacies of the

worldwide regions in question. Subsequent studies could also enrich our understanding of cross-

fertilization, which impacts countries with diverse cultures like Asia, Latin America, and the

Middle East. Moreover, the analysis can be done by comparing the specific industries, which

would give a more in-depth understanding of the unification and diversification patterns of the

global industries and local variants.

The cross-vergence approach is a suitable roadmap for modern HRM to balance integration and localization imperatives in a complex and diverse global environment. Employment of mindful adjustment to culture and surroundings and people management can serve as a suitable means for worldwide success and local relevance.

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