Art forms have, throughout centuries, served as mediums through which societies have investigated, reinforced, or challenged the cultural norms and traditions that they have established. In the dynastic eras of China, literature often reflected the philosophical teachings of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, shaping the moral and social framework of the time. These works frequently emphasized themes of loyalty, filial piety, and social harmony, becoming instruments of both moral education and social commentary. Similarly, Japanese period cinema, particularly the genre known as Jidaigeki, presents a stylized yet critical portrayal of the feudal periods, exploring the rigid codes of bushido and the samurai ethos. Films like Masaki Kobayashi’s "Harakiri" offer a poignant critique of the feudal system’s rigid traditions, illustrating how codes of conduct, such as the samurai’s Bushido, could both uphold and subvert societal norms. Across both traditions, art serves not only as a reflection of cultural values but also as a potent forum for questioning and transforming them. They provide insight into the nuanced interplay between tradition and modernity, shaping and reflecting evolving cultural identities.
Chinese dynastic literature, primarily poetry and prose, upheld the societal ideals of the time, often echoing Confucian principles that valued family, social hierarchy, and loyalty to the state. "The Book of Songs" (Shijing), one of the Five Classics, is an early example of how literature codified these norms, using poetry to embody virtues such as filial piety and loyalty (Lewis 2001). These concepts were investigated further in later works, such as the novels written during the Ming and Qing dynasties, but they were frequently presented in a more complex manner. As an illustration, Cao Xueqin's "Dream of the Red Chamber" is a critique of societal expectations that is told through a narrative full of personal tragedies that show the human costs of inflexible social rules (Wang 1989).
Despite the critical edge of some works, most literature remained firmly within the parameters of reinforcing Confucian ideals, subtly questioning but never outright rejecting them.
In contrast, Jidaigeki, or Japanese period cinema, often presents a more direct critique of society conventions and customs. This is a reflection of Japan's struggle to come to terms with its historical legacy after the war. The film "Seven Samurai," directed by Akira Kurosawa, for instance, depicts a society that is in a state of instability. In this film, samurai, who are typically seen as exemplars of morality, are instead shown to be fragile and flawed (Prince 1991). However, it is Masaki Kobayashi's "Harakiri" that delivers a searing indictment of Japan's feudal past. In the film, traditional samurai principles are subverted, and the film reveals the hollowness of bushido when it is confronted with human misery. The story, which is propelled by Hanshirō Tsugumo's pursuit of justice, emphasizes how the societal structures that are preserved by the samurai ethos frequently overlook the well-being of individuals, thereby revealing the hypocrisy that lies beneath the facade of honor (Masaki 1962). The change in tone of the narrative highlights how Jidaigeki is able to simultaneously criticize and appreciate conventional conventions.
Both Jidaigeki and dynastic Chinese literature shed light on the complex dynamic that exists between preserving cultural traditions and questioning them.
Jidaigeki cinema frequently takes a more direct approach, reflecting a Japan that has witnessed the collapse of its ancient systems.
This is in contrast to the more subtle way in which Chinese literature embeds criticism within narratives that purportedly defend Confucian principles.
"Harakiri," for example, utilizes the story of Tsugumo to call into question the basic foundation of medieval Japan's social structure.
It does this by revealing the weaknesses in the honor code that prized appearances over truth.
The film, which is propelled by Hanshirō Tsugumo's pursuit of justice, emphasizes how the societal structures that are preserved by the samurai ethos frequently overlook the well-being of individuals, thereby revealing the hypocrisy that lies beneath the facade of honor (Masaki 1962).
Moreover, Japanese cinema, particularly Jidaigeki, more openly confronts the inadequacies of tradition, suggesting that the cultural aftermath of World War II created an environment that was more conducive to overt questioning (Richie, 2005; Mellen, 2019). This is in contrast to the practices of Chinese literature, which frequently cloaks its criticism in allegory.